Extended Abstract Background: Soil erosion, a significant form of land degradation, poses severe challenges to humanity in different ecosystems. It serves as a comprehensive index for evaluating the development and sustainability of land management programs. Assessing the status and spatial extent of soil erosion has become crucial in developing countries. Biological management, a recommended and effective means of controlling soil erosion in the early stages of all processes, offers a practical solution. Biological methods, such as minimum tillage operations and limited intervention in nature, prove to be more cost-effective and efficient than structural measures. Despite these advantages, biological measures have not received adequate attention in soil erosion control. This research addresses this gap by applying biological management in the Kilanbar Watershed (Kermanshah Province, Iran), demonstrating its effectiveness and cost-efficiency. Methods: The layers of elevation from sea level, aspect, and slope steepness were prepared and combined in the geographic information system (GIS) software to prepare 38 land units. In the Kilanbar Watershed, 14 land units with the ability to perform biological management measures were extracted based on the expert and technical opinions of the watershed manager and considering different bases to improve the performance and decision-making of the units with an area of less than 300 ha. The Kilanbar Watershed is located in Ravansar City, west of Kermanshah Province. The study area is approximately 10798 ha. The highest and lowest elevation points of the watershed are 2183 and 1388 m above mean sea level, respectively. The mean annual precipitation, temperature, and relative humidity are 533 mm, 11.4 °C, and 45.1%, respectively. The status of soil erosion in each land unit was completed based on the scoring of the BLM form based on the visual and expert opinions, and a map of the erosion pattern was prepared in the land units. Ambrotropic and hyetographs were drawn using the 30-year precipitation and temperature data of the Ravansar synoptic station to determine the periods of drought and wet conditions and to identify suitable plants with the characteristics of the region. A climatic–agricultural map was prepared and integrated into the GIS using meteorological station data (temperature, precipitation, evaporation, and transpiration), and plant species were selected according to ecological expectations for watershed biological measures. Results: According to the BLM form results, one and eight land units are in partial and low erosion conditions, respectively, and five other land units are in medium erosion conditions. According to the erosion pattern map, the majority of the studied area, about 70% of the watershed, is in a low and medium erosion state, which naturally confirms the high ability to use appropriate biological measures to control soil erosion. According to ambrothermic and hyetograph measurements, June to September were dry months, and precipitation changes were more significant than temperature changes from October to May. According to the climatic–agricultural map, the region is divided into five classes. Class 4 (4819.3 ha) and Class 1 (364.83 ha) had the largest and smallest areas, respectively. Finally, the zoning of suitable rangeland species in the watershed showed that rangeland species of Asteragalus ascendes, Avena fatua, Picnomon sp., Achillea millefolium, Bromus tomentellus, and Hordum blubosum dominantly covered the region. Based on the study results, appropriate plant species were introduced for the studied watershed. Accordingly, conservation and reclamation measures were recommended to improve land productivity and ecological conditions and avoid land use changes for the study area. The essential measures include vegetation in rangeland ecosystems aiming at preventing the role of the canopy cover from directly impacting raindrops on the soil surface, increasing water infiltration in the soil, stabilizing soil aggregates due to roots extension, increasing grazing capacity and livestock production, and increasing its efficiency and productivity with time. Conclusion: The findings of this study hold significant potential for the Kilanbar Watershed. The proposed biological erosion measures, tailored to the ecosystem's unique conditions, are effective, low-cost, and environmentally compatible. They offer a sustainable solution for managing soil and water resources in various ecosystems. Implementing these measures can significantly reduce soil erosion in the watershed, particularly in areas with low to moderate erosion status. This research is an essential initiative in applying biological erosion measures in the Kilanbar Watershed, demonstrating that soil erosion can be effectively and practically controlled in approximately 67% of the watershed through biological methods in the critical land-use areas of rangelands and agriculture. It is important to note that applying biological erosion measures requires comprehensive and integrated investigations, considering the different parts of the ecosystem. With these findings, the proposed approach in this research can be extended to other watersheds across the country, particularly those with slight to moderate erosion status, while maintaining the principle of comprehensiveness and respecting the unique conditions of each watershed.

Soil water content at different soil depths over time, was studied in a non-irrigated, semi-arid environment. The research was carried out for two consecutive years with below- and above-average annual rainfall, beginning in October 1996 and ending in October 1998, under cultivated and fallow conditions. For the below-average rainfall season, soil moisture content at various depths fluctuated during rainy period but returned to the initial levels by the end of the season. For the season with above- average rainfall, the final soil moisture content showed a slight increase over that at the year's beginning. Also, agricultural effective rainfall was investigated as a function of individual rainfall events for every month of the rainy season. The results showed good correlations for November through January, but weak correlations for February through April due to increased temperature and higher evaporation rates. Fallow efficiencies in rain water conservation were calculated as 4.4 and 16.2% for the below and the above average rainfall seasons respectively, and fallow (cultivated) efficiencies for the above situations were 0.7 and 9.5%, respectively. It was concluded that land fall owing for moisture conservation is not justified in the study area. Actually, individual rain events were only effective in providing short term (monthly) soil moisture storage. Furthermore, since arid and semi-arid environments have a variety of microclimatic situations, a thorough evaluation of soil moisture storage over time should be conducted in each specific region.

Background and Objectives: Soil erosion is a kind of land degradation that is one of the world's environmental issues. One of the most common causes of land degradation is soil erosion. Various additives and amendments are being employed in order to safeguard the country's water and land. As a result, understanding diverse soil additives and their roles in the conservation of soil and water resources, as well as complete watershed management, is critical. As a result, the purpose of this study was to provide comprehensive information on the background and recent studies on the use of organic, inorganic, and biological soil additives, as well as to evaluate various effects and determine their performance and application in erosion control and soil and water conservation. Materials and Methods: All studies and research on the application of amendments in soil and water conservation in different conditions on various components of soil erosion and conservation in Iran were documented in databases and extracted from journal articles, conferences, executive reports, and related research, and theses and dissertations were investigated. The relevant 75 documents were then chronologically evaluated, analyzed, and summarized in order to assess the usage of various amendments in many areas, including the kind of amendments, the scope of use, the experimental setting, and the research variables. The necessary conclusions were ultimately drawn qualitatively. Results: The use of soil stabilizers and amendments such as organic, inorganic, and biological elements to enhance the erodibility threshold and prevent soil water erosion has been widely documented based on the findings of this study. According to research findings, the performance of amendments varied depending on the kind, manner of application, scale, and soil type. In addition, the findings on the usage of amendments revealed that various additions are used and work well in soil and water conservation. However, adopting any of the customary changes has been noted as a considerable difficulty due to economic, environmental, health, administrative, functional, and technical restrictions. The use of biologically and ecologically friendly alternatives to boost the efficiency of the conditions for balancing and stabilizing the soil environment has been stressed due to the aforementioned constraints for the use of amendments. Conclusion: Because of the widespread use of amendments, the feasibility of using environmentally friendly amendments, and emphasizing waste management in the primary industry through additional studies and research, there is a need for proper and appropriate measures that are naturally environmentally friendly in the long term. Nevertheless, additional research on the application of various amendments resulting from the direct or modified use of significant industrial wastes with respect to various aspects of environmental, economic, ecological, and even aesthetic and at different scales is necessary to summarize and develop appropriate executive instructions.

Cyanobacteria are one of the main components of soil biocrusts in arid and semi-arid regions that grow in the surface layer of the soil. They actively participate in the cycle of elements by secreting polysaccharides and play an important role in improving soil quality and fertility. Accordingly, they have been used in soil and water resources conservation issues in recent years through cultivating and producing the required biomass in laboratory conditions and inoculating at the soil surface. However, the proper media for optimal growth of the soil microorganisms have not been reported comprehensively. The present study was conducted to select the optimal culture medium for the growth of cyanobacteria in experimental conditions. For this purpose, the performance of three culture media viz. BBM, BG11 and CHU10 was compared during the one-month growth period of soil cyanobacteria. In this regard, the types of grown microorganisms as well as the number of cyanobacteria present during the growth period of one-month and on average once every 4 days were examined. The results showed that soil cyanobacteria in BBM culture medium had better growth than the other two culture media and at the end of the growth period, the number of cyanobacteria grown in BBM, BG11 and CHU10 medium was 91790, 48638 and 1491, respectively, per milliliter. Therefore, BBM culture medium is proposed as the optimal culture medium for use in preparing the biomass required by cyanobacteria for inoculation at the soil surface.

Water is a gradually scarce resource. This growing scarcity turns out to be even more substantial in climate change condition. On the other hand, erosion is a challenging problem not only since it leads to productivity losses, but also because it is related to desertification and rural poverty. As a consequence, conserving both water and soil are two of the most vital issues in water-constrained region such as Firoozabad plain. To provide a more comprehensive understanding of challenges surrounding the adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC) practices, this study investigates the impacts of economic, social, human, and financial variables as well as those of the individual properties of farmers on the adoption of SWC as a joint decision, using a Seemingly Unrelated Bivariate Probit Regression (SUBPR) model. Socioeconomic and production information were collected on a sample of 204 farms randomly selected in 8 villages. The result of diagonality test indicated that the residual terms of the two equations are correlated, which leads support to the use of the SUBPR model. In other words, SWC is a joint decision. Result also showed that 43.6% of farmers adopt water conservation, 44.1% adopt soil conservation and 24% adopt both. In the water equation, age, farm size, off-farm activities and access to credit, have positive and significant effects on the likelihood of adopting conservation. In contrast, family size and the number of land plots have negative and significant influences on adoption. In the soil equation, educations, farm size, family numbers working on farm and crop rotation have positive and significant effects on adoption. In contrast, Family size has a negative and significant influence. Finally, the result obtained from the equation for the case of joint adoption showed that farm size, education, access to credit, off-farm activities and family members working on-farm are important variables associated with the adoption of conservation measures. The findings of this study could help to improve the understanding of farmers’ behavior regarding conservation, and thus help the development of incentives and instruments focusing on soil and water programs.

Water and soil conversation is one of the most important issues in agriculture and food production. It is necessary to identify the limitations and barriers to the development of water and soil conservation technologies and to address them and achieve development goals through enhancing the adoption rate of these technologies by farmers. This study aimed at investigating the measures of soil and water conservation at the farm level as well as determining the factors influencing the adoption of these technologies. For this purpose, the factors affecting farmers' intentions in applying the water and soil conservation technologies and activities were analyzed through the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the path analysis technique. The model of path analysis technique confirmed the effects of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control on the farmer's intention, and also showed that in addition to the obvious variables, some invisible variables had also such significant effects on the farmers’ adoption, which caused overlaps. According to the results, the variable of farmer's attitude had the most significantly positive effect on farmers' intentions in the water and soil conservation activities. Then, perceived behavioral control and subjective norms had significantly positive effects on the intention of the farmer to apply the water and soil conservation technologies.

This research scrutinized the effectiveness of soil-water conservation (SWC) techniques and the determinants of their adoption by smallholder farmers in Gesha District, Southwest Ethiopia. A total of 36 soil samples were collected from preserved and non-preserved plots, and a household survey was conducted with 332 randomly selected respondents. Soil physical and chemical properties were analyzed using standard laboratory techniques, while mean differences were tested through one-way ANOVA. In addition, binary logistic regression was employed to identify factors influencing the adoption of SWC practices. Results revealed that preserved plots had higher soil fertility indicators associated to non-preserved plots, including soil pH (6. 17 vs. 5. 83), organic carbon (1. 85% vs. 1. 77%), available phosphorus (10. 92 ppm vs. 9. 93 ppm), and cation exchange capacity (37. 3 vs. 30. 3 cmol (+)/kg), while bulk density was lower (0. 42–0. 69 g/cm³ vs. 1. 22 g/cm³). Adoption rates, however, remained limited to 53. 9% of households. Regression results showed that adoption was positively influenced by education, farm size, livestock ownership, land slope, and farmers’ perception of erosion, while land tenure insecurity and credit access negatively affected adoption. The findings underscore that although SWC practices significantly improve soil fertility, socio-economic and institutional constraints hinder their wider uptake. Strengthening extension services, providing tenure security, and designing targeted interventions are recommended to enhance sustainable adoption.

Introduction: In developing countries land degradation and, as a consequence, soil quantity and quality reduction are the main challenges in sustainable development. Recently, the role of soil microorganisms in improving the soil properties of land prone to erosion and degradation has been approved. However, improving the performance of soil microorganisms through their direct inoculation can be a new strategy in soil and water conservation. Therefore, the identification and bulk scale proliferation and widespread use of bacteria and cyanobacteria are necessary for reducing soil loss and runoff. Accordingly, this study was planned to isolate, identify and proliferate the most appropriate indigenous bacteria and cyanobacteria for soil and water conservation.Materials and methods: In order to isolate and identify the bacteria and cyanobacteria, soil sampling was carried out from erosion-prone region of the vicinity of Marzanabad-Kandeloos. According to the TSA and Nutrient Agar (Lecomte et al., 2011) and Bold Basal and CHU10 (Andersen, 2005) experimental protocols, general media were used for the isolation and identification of bacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively. The isolated bacteria and cyanobacteria were then identified by microscopic examination along with their distinguishing morphological characteristics (Bergey and Breed, 1957). The most effective bacteria and cyanobacteria were consequently selected for the purpose of soil loss and runoff reduction. The selected soil microorganisms were purified by selective media (Atlas, 2010; Schrey et al., 2012) and then proliferated in high bulk and number.Results and discussion: The results showed the existence of different bacteria viz. Pseudomonas sp., Arthrobacter sp., Azotobacter sp., Diplococcus sp., Streptococcus sp. and Bacillus sp., and cyanobacteria viz. Nostoc sp., Oscillatoria sp., Lyngbya sp., Phormidium sp., Aphanothece sp., Diatoms and Xanthophyta in the soil microorganism’s bank. Eventually, Azotobacter sp. as free-living and nitrogen-fixing bacteria and the Bacillus subtilis strain with a high polysaccharides secreting capability and Nostoc sp. and Oscillatoria sp. as nitrogen-fixing and polysaccharides secreting cyanobacteria were selected as the genus with high functionality in soil and water conservation; this was based on some criteria such as survival power, proliferation and activity under inappropriate conditions, secretion of adhesive polysaccharides power, networking growth, the creation of micro and macro structures and being non-pathogenic for humans and other organisms. Since, after the proliferation process, the population of bacteria and cyanobacteria in one gram of original soil increased from 6.4×104 and 1.3×104 to 6.25×1014 and 2×1015 per gram, inoculation and increase of bacteria in soil could enhance the microbial activity of the soil crust. In addition, the secreted polysaccharides of bacteria could connect the soil particles together and increase soil porosity. The maintained processes could improve soil properties, and decrease soil and water loss. Furthermore, the feasibility of bacteria and cyanobacteria inoculation into widespread area was proven as a perdurable and biological stabilizer. According to economic evaluation, the cost of producing and inoculating bacteria and cyanobacteria could be up to 2 to 24 times lower than natural and artificial stabilizers.Conclusion: The results of the present study proved the feasibility of identification and proliferation of useful soil microorganisms in soil and water conservation from an erosion-prone region. Therefore, combined widespread use of selected and proliferated bacteria and cyanobacteria by aircraft could increase soil particle adherence, soil aggregate stability, soil porosity and permeability and, consequently, conserve soil and water resourses.

Soil and water conservation (SWC) is important for reducing the damaging effects of different soil erosion problems and improving the sustainability and rehabilitation of the natural environment. This study evaluated the effect of SWC in conserved areas on soil properties of two different climatic regions, including semi-arid (Rastab region) and humid cold temperate (Kohrang region) climates in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, Iran. A total of 24 soil samples were taken as soil cores from two layers, including 0–30 cm and 30-60 cm from each region. The soil physicochemical properties were analyzed based on standard laboratory procedures.Based on the results, soil properties in a five-year conserved area experiment showed improvement. However, no significant trend was observed in soil bulk density. The storage of soil carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) significantly increased after five years in the conserved area, while lime (CaCO3) decreased significantly. Moreover, significant improvement was found based on the infiltration rate in the conserved area management. Therefore, conserved areas for five years significantly improved the soil quality and potential carbon sequestration and infiltration rate in both semi-arid and humid cold temperate climates conserved areas. Overall, conserved areas in the area with a colder climatic regime improved the soil quality more than the semi-arid regime. Thus, SWC should be adopted and scaled up in areas exposed to severe land degradation due to its positive effects.